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5,https://omeka-dev.library.appstate.edu/items/show/5,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Cowan Bridge Clergy Daughters' School","Bad conditions at British Schools","The typhus epidemic at Cowan Bridge Clergy Daughters' School is the incident on which the Lowood School epidemic in Jane Eyre is widely considered to be based. At Cowan Bridge, an evangelical school under the care of the reverend William Carus Wilson, Charlotte's sister Elizabeth died of consumption during what was thought to be an outbreak of typhus (Barker 138). Charlotte's other sister, Maria, also died of consumption at Cowan Bridge (135). In her biography The Brontes, Juliet Barker compares and contrasts the fictional Lowood and the real Cowan Bridge. First of all, while the Lowood girls have ""wretched clothing and accommodations,"" Barker informs us that at Cowan Bridge:
they were required to be equipped with a plentiful supply of clothing: four day shifts (shirts and three night shifts, three night caps, to a pairs of stays, two flannel, one grey stuff (wool) and three white upper petticoats, two pairs of pockets, four pairs of white cotton stockings and three of black worsted, one nankeen spencer (a short jacket), four borne and two white holland pinafores, one short coloured dressing-down and two pairs of shows. in addition they had to bring gloves and a pair of pattens, which were wood and metal overshoes for outdoor wear. (Bronte 91, Barker122)
Additionally, though the strict, ascetic daily regimen, including sleeping in the cold, sharing beds, and humiliating punishments described in Jane Eyre appears to reflect the real practice at Cowan Bridge, Barker observes that this seems to have been the norm at good quality boarding schools, such as the upscale Woodhouse Grove, which I have shown, is corroborated by Pritchard (123). These harsh conditions, however much the norm, no doubt still contributed to the poor health of the girls, especially those with consumption. Nevertheless, though the girls were in theory as well provided for as any other boarded students in England at the time, there was a real problem at Cowan Bridge that went unaddressed, and that was the cook. While the administration of Cowan Bridge protested in response to allegations that the wretched Lowood was modeled after their school that, ""The daily dinner consisted of meat, vegetables, and pudding, in abundance,"" others protested that ""the cooking spoiled these provisions; boiled the puddings in unclean water; compounded the Saturday's nauseous mess from the fragments accumulated in a dirty larder during the week; and too often sent up the porridge, not merely burnt, but with offensive fragments of other substances discoverable in it!"" (126). Then, there is of course, the awful example mentioned in my Chapter 1 of the cook stirring a teacher's tea with a finger without washing the raw meat off her hands (126). What's more, when Elizabeth became physically sick after eating at one meal, she was ""dosed with an emetic"" (125-126). Barker concludes by reporting, ""As everyone, including Charlotte and Mrs. Gaskell, was careful to point out, the filthy cook at Cowan Bridge was eventually dismissed and replaced by a clean and efficient woman, who produced a marked improvement in the food"" (127). However, it seems she was not replaced in time to prevent her from exposing forty or fifty girls typhoid fever.","Frances Thielman","Barker, Juliet. The Brontes. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995. Print.",,1820s,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Victorian Public Health Places, Rivers, and Events",1,0
6,https://omeka-dev.library.appstate.edu/items/show/6,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Islington,London,"In my introduction, I used Islington as an example of what the implementation of the health reforms looked like on a local level primarily because Gerry Kearns's case study of the North London parish was such a widely-cited and well-recognized examination of Victorian health legislation. Therefore, I've located it here on the map. Kearns notes that because of its location away from London's center and its rapidly expanding location, it became a place where ""noxious trades,"" such livestock farming, refuse processing, and chemical works, that were not tolerated in the more crowded areas of the city, became concentrated in Islington (Kearns 98). Though Islington did experience deaths from cholera and other infectious diseases, Kearns tells us it was ""a relatively healthy part of London"" (98). Therefore, it's main concerns were to regulate its various industries, and keep them from polluting the water and the surrounding land.
","Frances Thielman","Kearns, Gerry. “Cholera, Nuisances and Environmental Management in Islington, 1830-55”
Medical History 11 (1991): 94-125. Print.
",,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Victorian Public Health Places, Rivers, and Events",1,0
7,https://omeka-dev.library.appstate.edu/items/show/7,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Leicester,,"Leicester was the site of particularly vehement resistance to the state mandated smallpox vaccination in 1853 (Wohl 133). The people of Leicester had already developed the ""Leicester Method"" of managing small pox, which involved disinfecting houses, burning infected clothing and bedding, and quarantining anyone who had been exposed to infected persons. Presumably, they didn't feel that they needed vaccination in addition to the measures they were already taking. No doubt, they also resented invasive government action and were suspicious of the vaccination technology--Jenner's lymph--which involved injecting healthy people with cowpox. In 1869, they formed the Leicester Anti-Vaccination League, and by the end of the 19th century, Leicester accounted for a quarter of the requests for conscientious objector certificates--28,524 requests.","Frances Thielman","Wohl, Anthony. Endangered Lives: Public Health in Victorian Britain. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983. Print. ",,1869-1884,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Victorian Public Health Places, Rivers, and Events",1,0
10,https://omeka-dev.library.appstate.edu/items/show/10,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Attercliffe,"Places of Resistance","Attercliffe, as you can tell if you zoom in closely, is a tiny village right outside of Sheffield. In the intro chapter, I narrated the incident of an incompetent cleansing team coming to ""help"" the people of Attercliffe deal with their cholera outbreak. However, as Sigsworth and Worboys record, ""in their attack on the nuisances, the brigade was seen by local residents as behaving more like an army of occupation than a relief column"" (Sigsworth & Worboys 243). Interestingly, Sigsworth and Worboys also report that ""Sheffield escaped quite lightly"" from the 1849 cholera epidemic, thus suggesting that their ""vigorous response"" to the Attercliffe epidemic had more to do with trying to prevent cholera from spreading into Sheffield than with trying to protect the people of Attercliffe. From this we can gather that when the Public Health Act of 1848 empowered towns to create local boards, they also empowered towns to force smaller outlying villages to conform to the interests of the more urban areas.","Frances Thielman","Sigsworth Michael and Michael Worboys. ""The Public's View of Public Health in Mid- Victorian Britain."" Urban History 21.2 (1994): 237-250. Web. 5 Feb. 2013.",,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Victorian Public Health Places, Rivers, and Events",1,0
11,https://omeka-dev.library.appstate.edu/items/show/11,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"The River Tees",Rivers,"The Thames was not the only river that was affected by pollution, and since smaller towns and rivers were not as carefully scrutinized, poor water quality could go unaddressed for a much longer time than would be tolerated in a larger city. Anthony Wohl writes that the Tees was condemned as an open sewer by the Local Government Board, even as late as 1893. He reports "" 'Seldom, if ever,' it wrote. . ""has a case of the fouling of water intended for human consumption, so gross or so persistently maintained come within the cognizance of the Medical Department.' ""(235). The towns of Darlington, Stockton, and Middlesborough continued to have outbreaks of typhoid into the 1890s (128).","Frances Thielman","Wohl, Anthony. Endangered Lives. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1983. Print.",,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Victorian Public Health Places, Rivers, and Events",1,0
16,https://omeka-dev.library.appstate.edu/items/show/16,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Rivers Cherwell and Lea",Rivers,"The Thames was supplied by several smaller rivers, such as the Cherwell and the Lea. This means every city on the river was affected by the pollution of the city that came before it on the stream, and every tributary carried the water of other cities into the larger river. Therefore, the water of the Thames when it reached London had been polluted by all the cities through which the Cherwell and the Lea passed as well.","Frances Thielman","Wohl, Anthony. Endangered Lives. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1983. Print.",,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Victorian Public Health Places, Rivers, and Events",1,0
17,https://omeka-dev.library.appstate.edu/items/show/17,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Thames River",Rivers,"One generally associates the Thames with London, however a look at the map reveals that the river covers a much longer distance. By the time the Thames had reached London, it had passed through several large cities, a few of which I have marked on the map, all of which had dumped in their copious waste after the manner described in the above entries. Wohl writes, ""the great irony of the Chadwickian revolution was that as they became 'more fully sewered and drained [they] pour out continuously a much larger proportionate volume of sewage' (Wohl 234).
One must ask, How could the Victorians neglect something so important? How could they not realize that water pollution was as much of a danger as the nuisances they were so zealously cleansing away on land? Lord Salisbury offered a possible explanation: ""Drainage must be put somewhere. You could not put it in the air; you could not always put it on the land; and when you could not put it on the land, you necessarily put it into the water"" (238). In other words, the reformers felt that of all the possible options for waste disposal, the river was the least dangerous. However, another option also presents itself: industry required the rivers to keep their businesses running. Wohl writes, ""As for the industrialists, they insisted that there was no other way to get rid of their waste products,"" and no one wanted to challenge such wealthy job providers in such a precarious economical climate (241).
","Frances Thielman","Wohl, Anthony. Endangered Lives. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1983. Print.",,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Victorian Public Health Places, Rivers, and Events",1,0
18,https://omeka-dev.library.appstate.edu/items/show/18,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Bradford Beck",Rivers,"The textile industry in this city won it its own catchphrase: ""As polluted as Bradford Beck"" (Wohl 236). The poisonous chemicals dumped into the canal made it so that the air above the water could actually be set on fire (236). Upstream of Bradford Beck, there were fish; downstream, it received ""the untreated waste of 168 woollen mills, ninety-four stuff mills, thirty-five dyeworks, seven size works, ten chemical works, three tanneries, and three grease-extracting works. . . .Add to all this the thousands of gallons of human sewage, and one has arrived at a partial chemical analysis of the composition of the rivers of the West Riding"" (236). This was the water that people downstream of Bradford Beck had to use for their basic needs.
","Frances Thielman","Wohl, Anthony. Endangered Lives. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1983. Print.
",,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Victorian Public Health Places, Rivers, and Events",1,0 19,https://omeka-dev.library.appstate.edu/items/show/19,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Drouet's Orphanage",Schools,"If Woodhouse Grove represented the best of the charity schools, Drouet's Orphanage represented the worst. Drouet's was the type of place where children who had no one to look after them eded up: a workhouse orphanage. Charles Dickens wrote critically about Drouet's anonymously in the Examiner and also subjected it to further satire in Bleak House with the character of Guster, short for Augusta. Guster, an orphan girl who works as a maid for a stationer named Mr. Snagsby was raised in a workhouse overseen ""by an amiable benefactor . . . at Tooting"" (Dickens 117). Guster, an epileptic, is subject to fits, due to having been starved as a child. A note in the Norton Critical edition revelas that this is almost definitely a reference to the real Drouet's workhouse orphanage, which was also in Tooting, and was ""notorious for its maltreatment of the inmates, who suffered from overcrowding and lack of food and sanitation. In 1849 a severe outbreak of cholera, in which 150 children died, led to ciminal charges being brought against the proprieter, Drouet, 'the amiable benefactor'"" (note 117).","Frances Thielman","Dickens, Charles. Bleak House. ed. George Ford and Sylvere Monod. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1977. Print.",,1849,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Victorian Public Health Places, Rivers, and Events",1,0 21,https://omeka-dev.library.appstate.edu/items/show/21,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"Woodhouse Grove School",Schools,"Woodhouse Grove School, a school for boys planning to go on to be Methodist ministers, was considered to be ""a model of its kind"" (Barker 122). While Eton and the other public schools were the schools of choice for those who could afford them, Woodhouse Grove provides a better standard by which to measure Bronte's Lowood School because it was the same kind of school--a charity school for the children of clergymen. The school was founded at the request of John Wesley because the Methodist denomination were ""anxious about the lack of theological training available for potential ministers and of the basic education needed to lead up to such training"" (Pritchard 4-6). The school did not charge any tuition, and all students were boarders (27). Students entered at the age of 8, and left when they were 14 or 15 unless they received a scholarship to continue their studies (27). They were ""provided with clothing and pocket money,"" and ""the school also paid traveling expenses when the boys entered and left,"" though they had to pay their own way when they left for the holidays (27). It appears, then, that the financial arrangements were quite generous. However, Woodhouse Grove required the boys to live a strict, ascetic lifestyle. In the early days of the school, the boys were actually not allowed to play, since in John Wesley's words, ""He that plays when he is a child will play when he is a man"" (58). However, this soon became untenable, and eventually the school provided a playground and recess time (58). The boys followed a rigid schedule. They were up at 5:45 in the summer and 6:45 in the winter, and went to bed at 8; their diet consisted of dry bread, porridge, treacle, and watered-down milk, and they had lunch once a week (60-61). Pritchard indicates that poor cooking was a problem at Woodhouse Grove since the governor's wife had to do all of it by herself (61). However, unlike Lowood School, the boys were allowed to have as much food as they wanted at these meal times (61). Meals were eaten in silence, though the students were allowed to read (62). Like Lowood, access to water was severely limited. There was only a single pump, and the boys had to wash in extremely cold water (62). Punishment was generally corporal. However, sometimes boys were fined, made to sit in a corner or even confined to a makeshift ""jail"" in a haystore (69-70). Woodhouse Grove was not a cheerful place. However, it appears that the boys' basic needs were taken care of. Thus the only diseases Pritchard reports were chilblains, ringworm, and other skin problems caused by inadequate access to water and extremely cold temperatures. And in 1828, one of the committee members Thomas Swale attempted to take care of these problems by issuing every boy with his own towel, brush, and comb (63). This does not seem like much to modern sensibilities, however, it shows that the committee were paying careful attention to the boys' living conditions and tried to intervene for their good when there was a problem. However, if Woodhouse Grove, with its monotonous diet (which surely would have caused a vitamin deficiency over time), freezing water, and beatings for small crimes was the gold standard for religious boarding schools, one hesitates to imagine what the worst of Victorian boarding schools must have been like.","Frances Thielman","Barker, Juliet. The Brontes. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995. Print.